Shields: How small is too small?

 Few, or perhaps no items of personal warrior gear are more important to our image of an Anglo-Saxon, or Viking warrior than the shield. Our understanding of this most essential piece of war-gear is informed, to some extent by pictoral depictions and written references, but, mainly, by patchy but nonetheless reliable inferences from cemetery archaeology.

Of the studies of Anglo-Saxon shields, arguably the most frequently cited, and informative, is Dickinson and Härke (1992) which, among other issues, seeks to shed light on the murky subject of shield size. Many readers, particularly those from the reenactment community, will be surprised to read that shields could often be as small as 34cm – certainly of no use for building interlocking 'shield-walls' described in later poetry, which we are led to believe was the dominant combat strategy as far back as the period of pagan burials.

Over 20 years on from the publication of this still critically important work, this observation has gradually exerted influence on some modern impressions of warriors from the period, and even beyond, given the limited evidence for late Anglo-Saxon shields, and limited availability of information on 'Viking' ones. It is further, not uncommon to hear, repeated by respected historians, the assertion that most early Anglo-Saxon shields were “little more than bucklers”. To what extent is this statement accurate? Just how small were Anglo-Saxon shields?

The Shield from Bidford-on-Avon Grave 182 (2/2)

The Shield from Bidford-on-Avon Grave 182  (Part 2) 

Bidford-182 boss  (with permission of Shakespeare Birthplace Trust)

In the previous article we discussed the importance of the early Anglian cemetery of Bidford-on-Avon and the unique shield remains found in in a warrior grave known as grave-182, excavated in 1923. While this mixed-burial-rite cemetery has yielded many impressive finds (mostly dated to the 6th and early 7th centuries) the grave-182 shield remains are of huge interest and have few comparisons.

 Following two years of research, acquisition of materials, and after personal examination of the finds (kindly facilitated by the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust Collections Dept.), we attempted to produce a convincing reconstruction of what this high-status shield may have originally looked like, using authentic materials and techniques.
The result, we hope, will help shed new light on and raise awareness of the long forgotten find, allow the story of the find to be told, and allow greater appreciation of the skilled craftspeople who built the original.

Nb. we are greatly indebted to the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust Collections Department, without who's help we could not have pieced together the story of the find. Examination of the original fragments in spring 2014, in particular, was crucial to achieving a representative reconstruction. 

The Shield from Bidford-on-Avon Grave 182 (1/2)

The Shield from Bidford-on-Avon Grave 182  (Part 1) 

While some of the Early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms have yielded much archaeology, and continue to yield extensive cemeteries and settlement sites for study, others are arguably less well served. The ancient kingdom of Mercia - of particular interest to our group, could in many ways be seen as such a case, and this presents a particular challenge when attempting to recreate the effects of this purportedly powerful, wealthy and sophisticated culture. Beyond the Staffordshire Hoard (itself mostly belonging to the mid-late 7th century and containing a very selective subset of items), at a glance one might be forgiven for thinking the Midlands lacked much in the way of early Anglo-Saxon archaeology.

In fact, there are a handful of archaeological sites which have yielded impressive finds, which are relevant to the earliest times of the Mercian kingdom - it is just that many were excavated in the early days of Anglo-Saxon archaeology, and their finds forgotten, lost, or hidden from view.

One such case; the large cemetery of Bidford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, initially excavated between 1923 and 1924 (Humphreys et. al., 1925) sheds valuable light on early Anglo-Saxon Mercia and has yielded many impressive finds, including a great quantity of feminine items of decidedly Anglian (rather than Saxon) affinities, including one of the most impressive square-headed brooches ever found. Among a number of warrior graves, the most impressive item, however, was a shield-boss decorated in such a way as to make it entirely exceptional, artistically, and of a status (within the British Isles) second perhaps only to the kingly shield of Sutton-Hoo Mound 1.

The impressive shield-boss from Bidford-on-Avon grave 182 is not on public display, residing with the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust. To raise awareness of this find and explore what this piece of warrior gear may have looked like in its day, in 2012 we embarked on a lengthy process to reconstruct the shield, using authentic materials and techniques.

Nb. we are greatly indebted to the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust Collections Department, without who's help we could not have pieced together the story of the find. Examination of the original fragments in spring 2014, in particular, was crucial to achieving a representative reconstruction. 

Wyrmfang 2/2

'Wymfang' - Chapter 2; A princely sheath for a princely Seax

In 2013 we attempted to faithfully reconstruct the second seax of the Staffordshire Hoard (see previous chapter here); a smaller but arguably richer weapon, featuring five pieces bearing garnet cloisonné on its hilt. This item had been long in the planning, ever since the Staffordshire Hoard conservation team announced the connection between the five splendid components which made up the hilt, and the reconstruction took place mainly during the spring of 2013. As always with such projects though, work was not over once the weapon was complete, as a sheath was still to be made, which would properly protect the blade and complement its haft.

Wyrmfang 1

'Wyrmfang' - Chapter 1:  A Princely Wælsax from the Staffordshire Hoard

From the first moment I set eyes on the beautiful gold and garnet seax collars K354, K370 and K449 from the Staffordshire Hoard, with their associated pommel-cap K376 and hilt loop K690, I was keen to attempt a  reconstruction. The association between these finds was identified early following the discovery of the original batch of Hoard items in the famous field in Hammerwich, and implied the existence of a rare seax with a hilt of unprecedented beauty and balance. I was keen to construct a good replica to better understand this lovely weapon.

The project finally reached completion just in time for the Thegns' visit to West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village, and has taken two years of blood tears and sweat, from planning to completion. The result has facilitated a much better appreciation for the supreme skill and dedication of the Anglo-Saxon master weapon-smiths.


What would such a weapon have looked like, what length would the blade have been, how would the grip have functioned and, given the mass of gold in the handle, what would be the balance of the weapon?
To answer these questions, I embarked on a project to produce a feasible reconstruction of this unique seax.

Slithrung 3

Slithrung Part 3:  The Sheaths

While a splendid sword demands a splendid sheath, arranging this was, to put it mildly, a long-winded and stressful affair. Given the extensive use of high-status metal decoration on the sheath of Notung, it was initially felt that the sheath of Slithrung should be constructed of mostly organic components. Indeed, most finds of extant Migration period sheaths seem to lack metal fittings.
This article discusses both attempts to produce a worthy sheath for Slithrung.

Læwatan: Staffs Hoard Seax 2

Læwatan; a Wælseax inspired by the Staffordshire Hoard     -Part 2

With the Seax now complete, attention could be given to the sheath that would protect it, and the selection of a suitable name. The sheath, as much as the seax itself, provided an opportunity to showcase the evolution of Anglo-Saxon artistic styles, while the name opens discussion of language and mythology.  

Slithrung 2

Sliþrung Part 2: The Hilt

With the blade ready, and with the core of a sheath to protect it, attention could be given to the hilt. Inspired by the Staffordshire Hoard, but also Scandinavian finds, a design was put together that would be able to highlight trade and cultural links between ancient Mercia and the Scandinavian kingdoms.

Slithrung 1

Sliþrung Part 1

Crucial to future appreciation of the Staffordshire Hoard, and recognition of the historical golden age (rather than ‘Dark Age’) it represents, is the effective communication of it’s story and insights to members of the public.

Although found out of any useful immediate context, hoard finds do each have a story to tell; some are connected with neighbouring items in the hoard, while others are linked to other finds elsewhere in England and beyond, hinting at trade and cultural ties.

Inspired by the tree of connections rooted by the Staffordshire Hoard, I embarked on a project to produce a single assembly capable of providing visual context to a number of hoard finds, and illustrate the hoard’s broader context both in time, and in relation to neighbouring kingdoms and cultures.

Læwatan: Staffs Hoard Seax 1

Læwatan; a Wælseax inspired by the Staffordshire Hoard

“þa gen sylf cyninggeweold his gewitte, wællseaxe gebrædbiter ond beaduscearp, þæt he on byrnan wæg; forwrat Wedra helm wyrm on middan.”  

‘The king himself nowtook command of his wits, reached for the slaughter-sax of keenest battle-sharpness, that he carried in his harness;the Geats’ Protector hewed the wyrm in twain’

One of the most striking objects in the Hoard is the solid gold hilt-plate k567. This piece, finely decorated with interwoven Salin Style-II biting beasts, is of a lozenge shape that would be expected to adorn the hilt of a sword, yet its triangular slot clearly indicates it once adorned a single-edged killing knife or "waelseax". Such seax fittings are rare, and it is not clear how such a piece would be integrated into a seax handle-design.

What would such a weapon have looked like, what length would the blade have been, and how would the handle have functioned?
To answer these questions, I embarked on a project to produce a feasible reconstruction of this seax.

The Construction of a Viking Shield; Part 6 (final)

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Having completed the structure of the shield, all that was left to do now was to decide how best to treat the rawhide to protect it from the elements, and reflect on the findings of the project.

The Sword Saga: Part 4 (final)

Chapter 4: The Sheath
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With the sword complete, the next task was to make a sheath in which to house it. Largely organic, clues for the construction of such sheaths come from finds of metallic decoration that once adorned them.

As with the sword, much of the decorative elements were obtained from our masterful jeweller friend George Easton at danegeld.co.uk, with other pieces purchased from Jelling Dragon and Raymond's quiet press.

The Construction of a Viking Shield; Part 5

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With the shield reinforced with linen, then rawhide, the next task was to reinforce the edge as supported by archaeological evidence (as previously discussed). After that, completion of the project awaited attachment of the boss and handle.

The Sword Saga: Part 3

Chapter 3: Assembling the Hilt
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"In pure gold inlay on the sword-guards / there were rune-markings correctly incised"      (Beowulf, Lines 1694-1695).

  The blade was ready, and so too were the Staffordshire Hoard pommel cap and collars beautifully crafted by George. Next came the challenge of putting the whole thing together.

The Construction of a Viking Shield; Part 4

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The structure was now far more robust, and the effort required to push the shield flat was now greater. Would one be prepared to go into a life or death or struggle with the shield as it was – most unlikely, so it was decided appropriate to apply a layer of raw-hide to each side.

The Construction of a Viking Shield; Part 3

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In respect of linen, although there are some modern sources that suggest that linen could have been used to face Anglo-Saxon / Viking shields, the author at the time of writing this article, having sought assistance from the Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo[1] is unable to find any hard evidence that linen was ever or actually used in this context. That does not mean, however that it never was, and as the purpose of this exercise is to learn about the construction it was decided to face both sides of the shield with linen canvas.

The Sword Saga: Part 2

Chapter 2: Treasures of the Hoard
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The discovery of the Staffordshire Hoard, the only hoard of Anglo-Saxon gold ever found, became public knowledge around the time I was planning the assembly of my new sword, Notung.

Containing hundreds of items including sword pommel-caps, seax fittings, and decorative components of sword-sheaths, most of gold and garnet, the Hoard was unearthed between Cannock and Lichfield, not far from my place of work. The beautiful items of the hoard must surely have adorned some magnificent weapons in their day, and I was sure that Paul's splendid blade deserved nothing less.

The Construction of a Viking Shield; Part 2

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Having sourced the correct wood, the task of assembling the shield began. The redwood was cut to 1 metre lengths, 145mm wide, and reduced to 1cm thick. The longitudinal edges were then scored and each adjoining edge applied with pearl glue to ensure good adhesion...

The Construction of a Viking Shield; Part 1

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Ever since I first read Caesar’s The Conquest of Gaul,[1] I've been intrigued by Caesar’s comments on his troops having being caught unawares by the Nervii:

“…Then as the Nervii were within range, he gave the signal for battle. On going to the other side of the field to address the troops there, he found them already in action. The soldiers were so pushed for time by the enemy’s eagerness to fight that they could not even take the covers off their shields or put on their helmets…”

(Nualabugeye 2008)

From this extract it can be inferred that the shields, in being covered, required some protection from the elements. Why? Although this non-empirical evidence is anachronistic to this work in general, the problems in shield production would still have been encountered by the 9th - 10th century Scandinavians by virtue of the fact that woodworking technology had not, at least to the modern mind, significantly progressed.

Therefore, having taken an exploratory and hermeneutical approach to the relevant literature, this article aims to document each stage of the authors own empirical research in reconstructing a 'Viking' shield, using only materials available to 10^th century Scandinavians – where possible. This article is not intended as the last word on Viking shield construction, but rather, by making empirical observations and analysis on various aspects of its construction, it is intended to generate debate.

The Sword Saga; Part 1

Chapter 1:       Notung; A Blade fit for a Hero

‘Notung! Notung! Neidliches Schwert !
Jetzt haftest du wieder im Heft ....’
         Richard Wagner, Siegfried (Act I, scene iii)

Some years ago, I decided I would like to acquire a good pattern-welded sword. My existing sword, which I had made myself, (with a little help from my friend Simon Stanley, the Archer) while adequate, was, I thought, inelegant. I thus began a project to comission and complete a high status early Anglo-Saxon sword.